Water and Sanitation in Kenya: The Crisis, the Solutions, and What Every Kenyan Should Know

Water is life, yet millions of Kenyans still lack reliable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. While significant progress has been made — national piped water coverage has reached approximately 70 percent, serving over 21.5 million people — the sanitation sector lags far behind, with only 15 percent of the population connected to formal sewerage systems. Climate change, rapid urbanization, and infrastructure deficits compound the challenge. This guide examines the state of water and sanitation in Kenya, the institutional framework, ongoing solutions, and what citizens need to know.

The State of Water Access in Kenya

Kenya's water coverage has improved from 65 percent to 70 percent in recent years, adding over 3 million people to piped water access in a single year. However, access remains unevenly distributed. Urban areas enjoy approximately 80 percent coverage compared to around 55 percent in rural areas. Counties in northern Kenya and arid regions — including Mandera, Marsabit, Turkana, and Wajir — remain significantly underserved, with some communities relying entirely on boreholes, seasonal rivers, or water trucking.

The quality of water service also varies dramatically. Many water connections provide intermittent supply, with rationing common in cities like Nairobi, Mombasa, and Nakuru. Non-revenue water (water lost through leaks, theft, or unbilled connections) averages 40 to 50 percent nationally, representing enormous waste. In many rural communities, women and girls still bear the primary responsibility for fetching water, often walking several kilometres daily — time that could be spent in school or on economic activities.

The Sanitation Challenge

Kenya's sanitation sector faces even steeper challenges. Only about 15 percent of the population is connected to formal sewerage systems, with just over 319,000 people connected to sewers recently — far fewer than the 2.6 million added to the population annually. The vast majority rely on on-site sanitation including pit latrines, septic tanks, and in the worst cases, open defecation. An estimated 5 million Kenyans still practice open defecation, particularly in rural and informal settlement areas.

Urban sanitation is particularly challenging in informal settlements like Kibera, Mathare, and Mukuru, where overcrowding, lack of space, and inadequate drainage create severe health hazards. "Flying toilets" (plastic bags used for defecation and discarded) remain a reality in some slums. Sewage overflow into rivers and groundwater contaminates drinking water sources, contributing to waterborne diseases including cholera, typhoid, and dysentery that kill thousands annually.

Institutional Framework

Kenya's water sector operates through a tiered institutional structure. The Ministry of Water, Sanitation, and Irrigation sets national policy. The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) regulates water and sewerage services, sets tariffs, issues licenses, and monitors performance. Water Works Development Agencies (WWDAs) develop bulk water infrastructure at the regional level. County-level Water Service Providers (WSPs) deliver water and sewerage services to consumers.

Under devolution, water and sanitation service delivery is a county government function, while the national government retains responsibility for national water policy, management of trans-county water resources, and large infrastructure projects. The Water Resources Authority (WRA) manages water resources including licensing water abstraction, monitoring water quality, and managing catchment areas. The National Water Harvesting and Storage Authority manages dams and large water storage infrastructure.

Major Water Infrastructure Projects

Several large-scale projects aim to address Kenya's water deficit. The Northern Water Collector Tunnel brings water from Mount Kenya forests to Nairobi. The Thwake Dam in Makueni County, when complete, will provide water to Makueni, Kitui, and Machakos counties and generate 20 MW of hydroelectric power. The expansion of the Nairobi Water Supply system through the Northern Collector and the Ruiru II Dam aims to reduce the city's chronic water shortages.

County governments are investing in boreholes, water pans, and small dam construction for rural water supply. Solar-powered boreholes are increasingly popular in arid areas, reducing dependence on diesel pumps. Water kiosks and ATM-style water dispensers using prepaid tokens or mobile money are expanding access in peri-urban areas and informal settlements, providing clean water at affordable rates (typically KES 2 to KES 5 per 20-litre jerrycan).

Water Tariffs and Consumer Rights

Water tariffs in Kenya are set by WASREB based on the principle of full cost recovery while ensuring affordability. Tariffs follow a rising block structure where the first block (typically the first 6 cubic metres) is subsidized for basic consumption, while higher consumption attracts progressively higher rates. A typical household paying for piped water in Nairobi under the Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company pays approximately KES 300 to KES 1,500 monthly depending on consumption.

Consumers have the right to safe water that meets KEBS standards, reliable supply with advance notice of interruptions, accurate metering and billing, and a complaint resolution mechanism. WASREB provides a consumer complaints hotline and monitors WSP performance through annual impact reports that rank water companies on service quality, efficiency, and financial sustainability.

Climate Change and Water Security

Climate change is fundamentally a water crisis for Kenya. Changing rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and intense flooding events threaten both water availability and infrastructure. The 2022-2023 drought, the worst in 40 years, left over 4 million people in need of emergency water assistance. Conversely, the 2024 floods destroyed water infrastructure and contaminated water sources across multiple counties.

Adaptation strategies include expanding water harvesting and storage capacity, protecting water towers (forests that serve as water catchments), promoting water-efficient agricultural practices, investing in desalination for coastal areas, and strengthening early warning systems for droughts and floods. The National Climate Change Action Plan identifies water security as a priority area.

What Citizens Can Do

Individual actions make a difference. Harvest rainwater using gutters and storage tanks — a 100-square-metre roof can collect over 80,000 litres annually in areas with 800mm rainfall. Fix leaking taps and pipes promptly. Report illegal connections and water contamination to your WSP or WASREB. Practice water recycling by reusing greywater for gardening. Support community water projects and participate in county water planning forums. Report billing irregularities and demand accurate metering. Together, Kenyans can help bridge the water and sanitation gap and ensure this essential resource reaches every household.