Kenya and Refugees: Dadaab, Kakuma, and the Complex Reality of Hosting One of Africa's Largest Refugee Populations

Kenya has hosted hundreds of thousands of refugees for over three decades, making it one of the largest refugee-hosting nations in Africa. As of mid-2025, the country shelters approximately 835,000 registered refugees and asylum seekers, primarily from Somalia, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, and Burundi. The vast majority live in two sprawling camp complexes — Dadaab in Garissa County and Kakuma in Turkana County — while a growing urban refugee population resides in Nairobi and other cities. This guide examines the history, current state, and future trajectory of refugee hosting in Kenya.

Dadaab Refugee Complex: The World's Largest Refugee Settlement

Established in 1991 to accommodate Somalis fleeing civil war, Dadaab grew into the world's largest refugee complex. Located approximately 100 kilometres from the Somali border in Garissa County, Dadaab comprises multiple camps including Hagadera, Dagahaley, and Ifo. As of June 2025, Dadaab hosts over 432,000 refugees, with Somalis comprising the overwhelming majority.

Dadaab's population peaked at over 500,000 during the 2011 Horn of Africa famine, when thousands of Somalis crossed the border daily. Despite periodic calls for closure — most notably in 2016 when the Kenyan government announced plans to shut the camp citing security concerns linked to Al-Shabaab — Dadaab remains operational. The camp has developed its own economy with markets, schools, and health facilities, though residents face significant restrictions on movement and employment under Kenya's encampment policy.

Kakuma Refugee Camp and Kalobeyei Settlement

Kakuma was established in 1992 in Turkana County, northwestern Kenya, initially to host the "Lost Boys" fleeing Sudan's civil war. Today it hosts a more diverse population including South Sudanese, Congolese, Ethiopians, Burundians, and Ugandans. As of mid-2025, the Kakuma-Kalobeyei complex hosts approximately 307,000 refugees, with 224,000 in the main Kakuma camp and nearly 80,000 in the newer Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement.

The Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement, established in 2016, represents a deliberate shift from traditional camp models. Unlike Dadaab or old Kakuma, Kalobeyei was designed to integrate refugees with the local Turkana host community through shared services, market systems, and agricultural initiatives. Residents receive cash-based assistance rather than food rations, promoting self-reliance and local economic activity. The Kalobeyei model has influenced Kenya's broader approach to refugee management.

Urban Refugees in Nairobi and Other Cities

Approximately 115,000 registered refugees live in urban areas, primarily Nairobi, Mombasa, and Nakuru. Urban refugees tend to be more educated and economically active than camp-based populations, with many running businesses or working in the informal sector. However, they face challenges including limited access to formal employment due to documentation barriers, difficulty accessing public services, discrimination and exploitation, and high cost of living without the humanitarian assistance available in camps.

The Department of Refugee Services manages refugee registration and documentation. Refugees with valid documentation can theoretically access healthcare, education, and work permits, but practical barriers remain significant. Organizations like the UNHCR Kenya, Refugee Consortium of Kenya, and various NGOs provide legal aid, livelihood support, and advocacy for urban refugees.

Kenya's Refugee Legal Framework

Kenya's approach to refugees has evolved significantly over the decades. The Refugees Act of 2021 replaced the earlier 2006 Act and introduced several reforms including formal recognition of refugee rights to work and access services, establishment of the Department of Refugee Services under the Ministry of Interior, provisions for refugee integration and local settlement, and a framework for voluntary repatriation and durable solutions.

However, implementation has been gradual. Kenya has historically maintained an encampment policy requiring refugees to live in designated camps rather than moving freely. While enforcement has been inconsistent, particularly for urban refugees, the policy has limited refugees' ability to fully participate in the economy. The 2021 Act represents a shift toward integration, but translating legal provisions into practice requires significant institutional and financial investment.

The Shirika Plan: Kenya's Vision for Refugee Integration

In March 2025, the Kenyan government launched the Shirika Plan, an ambitious 11-year initiative (2025-2036) to transform refugee camps into integrated, self-reliant settlements. "Shirika" means "coming together" in Swahili, reflecting the plan's emphasis on integrating refugees with host communities rather than maintaining them in isolated camps.

The Shirika Plan envisions folding Dadaab and Kakuma into municipalities administered by Garissa and Turkana county governments, with service delivery gradually transitioning from UN agencies and NGOs to local government. The plan spans three phases: Transition (establishing governance frameworks), Stabilization (building infrastructure and services), and Resilience (achieving sustainable development). With an estimated budget of $943 million, the plan is overseen by a National Steering Committee working with county governments, UN agencies, donors, and the private sector.

The plan has been praised internationally as a model for refugee management, but faces challenges including local opposition from host communities concerned about competition for resources and land, funding uncertainties, and the complexity of transforming decades-old camp structures into functional municipalities.

Economic Impact of Refugees in Kenya

Refugees make significant economic contributions to Kenya. The Kakuma camp economy generates an estimated $56 million annually, with refugee-owned businesses employing both refugees and local Turkana residents. In Dadaab, the camp's market system circulates millions of dollars monthly, much of it flowing into the broader Garissa County economy. The PROSPECTS partnership between the ILO, UNHCR, World Bank, UNICEF, and IFC works to improve economic outcomes for both refugees and host communities.

However, the economic impact is uneven. Host communities in Turkana and Garissa — among Kenya's poorest counties — both benefit from and compete with the humanitarian economy. While refugees create demand for local goods and services, they also compete for scarce resources including water, grazing land, and firewood. Effective integration requires investment in infrastructure and services that benefit both populations.

Education, Health, and Humanitarian Services

Education in refugee camps is provided through a parallel system managed by UNHCR and partner organizations, though Kenya has been progressively integrating refugee students into the national curriculum. Primary school enrollment rates in camps average 70 to 80 percent, but secondary enrollment drops significantly. Initiatives like the DAFI scholarship program provide university education to talented refugees, though competition for limited slots is intense.

Healthcare is provided through camp-based health facilities operated by organizations including the International Rescue Committee, Médecins Sans Frontières, and the Kenya Red Cross Society. Refugees access free primary healthcare, but referral services for complex conditions remain challenging. Mental health needs are significant given the trauma experienced by many refugees, and services are gradually expanding through community-based approaches.

Security Concerns and the Refugee-Security Nexus

Kenya's refugee policy has been deeply influenced by security considerations, particularly following Al-Shabaab terrorist attacks including the Westgate Mall attack in 2013 and the Garissa University attack in 2015. The government has periodically linked refugee presence to security threats, leading to crackdowns, forced relocations from urban areas to camps, and calls for camp closures. These policies have been criticized by human rights organizations as collective punishment and counterproductive to security.

Security screening and biometric registration have been enhanced, with the Department of Refugee Services conducting regular verification exercises. The reality is that refugees are overwhelmingly victims rather than perpetrators of violence, and effective security responses require intelligence-based approaches rather than blanket policies targeting entire refugee populations.

The Future of Refugees in Kenya

Kenya's refugee situation remains dynamic. Ongoing conflicts in Somalia, South Sudan, and the DRC continue to drive displacement, while climate change increasingly contributes to cross-border movement. The Shirika Plan offers a progressive framework for long-term solutions, but success depends on sustained international funding, genuine political commitment to integration, and meaningful participation of both refugee and host communities in planning and implementation. Kenya's experience — with all its complexities — offers valuable lessons for refugee-hosting countries worldwide.