Refugee Hosting and Integration in Kenya: Dadaab, Kakuma, and the Shirika Plan

Kenya is one of Africa's largest refugee-hosting nations, sheltering approximately 835,793 refugees and asylum seekers as of late 2025. For over three decades, the country has provided sanctuary to populations fleeing conflict, persecution, and environmental disaster across the Horn of Africa and Great Lakes region. The vast refugee camps at Dadaab and Kakuma have grown into some of the world's largest settlements, functioning as de facto cities with their own economies, education systems, and social structures. Kenya's approach to refugee hosting is now undergoing a historic transformation through the Shirika Plan, which aims to transition from encampment to integration over a 12-year period.

Scale and Demographics of Kenya's Refugee Population

Kenya's refugee population is concentrated in two major camp complexes and urban areas. As of June 2025, UNHCR data shows Dadaab hosts approximately 432,480 individuals (about 48.7 percent of the total), while Kakuma and its adjacent Kalobeyei settlement house approximately 306,963 individuals (37.2 percent). Urban refugees, primarily in Nairobi and Mombasa, account for approximately 14.2 percent of the population.

Somali nationals comprise the largest refugee group at 54 percent, followed by South Sudanese at 24.5 percent. Significant populations also originate from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Burundi, Uganda, and Sudan. Women and children constitute the majority, with approximately 60 percent of refugees under the age of 18. This demographic profile shapes service delivery needs, with education, child protection, and maternal health requiring disproportionate resources.

Dadaab: The World's Largest Refugee Complex

Dadaab refugee complex, located in Garissa County near the Somali border, was established in 1991 to accommodate Somalis fleeing civil war. What began as an emergency response has become a permanent feature of the landscape, with some residents having lived there for over 30 years. The complex originally comprised three camps: Hagadera, Ifo, and Dagahaley, with Ifo II and Kambioos added during the 2011 famine crisis, though Kambioos was later closed.

Dadaab functions as a significant economic center in northeastern Kenya, with a market economy estimated to generate millions of shillings in daily transactions. Refugees operate businesses ranging from small retail shops to livestock trading, mobile money services, and construction. The camp's economy is intertwined with surrounding host communities, who benefit from employment, trade, and shared infrastructure. However, the arid environment, limited water resources, and periodic security concerns related to proximity to Somalia create persistent challenges.

Kakuma and the Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement

Kakuma refugee camp in Turkana County was established in 1992, initially to host Sudanese refugees, including the famous "Lost Boys of Sudan." The camp has since grown to accommodate diverse populations from across East and Central Africa. Kakuma proper hosts approximately 224,721 individuals, while the adjacent Kalobeyei settlement houses around 79,867 people as of June 2025.

The Kalobeyei Integrated Settlement, established in 2015, represents a pioneering approach to refugee hosting. Unlike traditional camps, Kalobeyei was designed from inception to promote socio-economic integration between refugees and host communities through shared services, livelihood opportunities, and development interventions. The Kalobeyei Integrated Socio-Economic Development Plan (KISEDP) provides the programmatic framework, focusing on self-reliance rather than aid dependency. Shared markets, schools, and health facilities serve both refugee and Turkana populations, creating economic interdependence and social cohesion.

Legal and Policy Framework

Kenya's refugee management is governed by the Refugees Act 2021, which replaced the 2006 legislation. The 2021 Act represents a significant shift, providing refugees with expanded rights including the right to work, access financial services, obtain identification documents, and move more freely. The Department of Refugee Services (DRS), previously the Refugee Affairs Secretariat, administers refugee registration, status determination, and coordination with UNHCR and implementing partners.

Kenya is a signatory to the 1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol, as well as the 1969 OAU Convention Governing Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa. The country endorsed the 2018 Global Compact on Refugees and has made pledges at successive Global Refugee Forums to advance refugee inclusion. However, implementation challenges remain, including bureaucratic barriers to work permits, restrictions on freedom of movement, and gaps between legislative provisions and practical access to rights.

The Shirika Plan: A Paradigm Shift

The Shirika Plan, meaning "coming together" in Swahili, represents Kenya's most ambitious refugee policy initiative. Launched in November 2024, this 12-year plan spanning three phases through 2035 aims to transform Dadaab and Kakuma from isolated refugee camps into integrated municipalities administered by their respective county governments of Garissa and Turkana. The initial phase is estimated to cost approximately USD 943 million.

Under the Shirika Plan, county governments would eventually take over service delivery from UN agencies and NGOs. Refugees would access national education, health, water, and sanitation systems alongside host communities. The plan builds upon earlier frameworks including the Support for Host Community and Refugee Empowerment (SHARE) initiative, KISEDP for Turkana, and the Garissa Integrated Socio-Economic Development Plan (GISEDP).

However, the plan faces significant challenges. Local opposition has emerged from host communities concerned about resource competition, land rights, and demographic changes. County governments lack the fiscal capacity and institutional infrastructure to absorb refugee service delivery without sustained international funding. Critics also note that refugee participation in the plan's design was largely tokenistic rather than substantive.

Economic Impact and Livelihood Programs

Refugees contribute significantly to local and national economies, contrary to common misconceptions. Studies have estimated that Dadaab and Kakuma together generate annual economic activity worth hundreds of millions of dollars, benefiting host communities through employment, trade, and infrastructure development funded by humanitarian operations. UNHCR and its partners employ thousands of Kenyans in camp operations.

Livelihood programs have expanded considerably, with organizations including the ILO PROSPECTS initiative, World Bank, and various NGOs supporting agricultural projects, vocational training, small business development, and financial inclusion. Mobile money platforms have been transformative, enabling refugees to receive remittances, save, and conduct business. Cash-based assistance has largely replaced in-kind food distribution, allowing refugees greater agency and stimulating local markets.

Education and Health Services

Education remains a critical challenge and opportunity. While primary enrollment rates in camps have improved, secondary education access remains limited, and quality issues persist due to overcrowded classrooms, teacher shortages, and inadequate facilities. Innovative programs such as connected learning through technology platforms, university scholarships including the DAFI program, and integration into Kenya's competency-based curriculum are expanding opportunities. Refugees who complete education in Kenya increasingly contribute to their host communities and, upon return, to rebuilding their countries of origin.

Health services in refugee settings operate through a network of hospitals, health centers, and community health workers, primarily funded by UNHCR and partners. Refugees in camps generally have better access to healthcare than many rural Kenyan populations, though specialized care and referral services remain constrained. Mental health services, critical given the trauma experienced by refugee populations, are gradually expanding but remain insufficient relative to need.

Challenges and the Path Forward

Kenya's refugee hosting faces persistent challenges including donor fatigue and funding shortfalls that affect service quality, environmental degradation around camp areas, security concerns particularly near Dadaab, and political tensions around refugee presence. Climate change is expected to increase displacement, with the Horn of Africa experiencing more frequent and severe droughts and floods.

Despite these challenges, Kenya's evolving approach from encampment to integration represents a model being watched globally. The success of the Shirika Plan and related initiatives will depend on sustained international funding, genuine refugee participation, host community buy-in, and county government capacity building. Kenya's experience offers valuable lessons for the more than 30 million refugees worldwide seeking safety and dignity, demonstrating that hosting refugees, when managed effectively, can generate mutual benefits for displaced populations and host nations alike.